29 years of service to numismatics
Volume 29 Number 1 ISSN: 0197-3088 Price .... Two Dollars
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FEATURE ARTICLES
The Casting of a Cash Coin, by Chris Shappell 21
The Recall of Romania’s Nickel Coinage, by Peter S. Horvitz 19
The Wako in Japanese Coinage History, by Francis J. Gerner 7
DEPARTMENTS
Book News & Reviews 23
From the Mailbox 5
Member Notice Page 24
INSIDE N.I.
Donations Report 3
Librarian’s Report — 3
Membership Chairman’s Report 3
OTHER ITEMS
The Australian Fantasy Crown, by Mike Davis — 6
"Cabes" and "Boss" 20
"Denga" 4
"Ebenezer" 5
The "Habitant" Tokens of Canada — 20
Mule 5
Ribbons on Arms of USSR Coins 24
"Umpyo" 20
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Copyrighted by Numismatics International, P.O. Box 670013, Dallas, Texas USA 75367-0013
JANUARY 1994
BOARD OF GOVERNORS
DR. HOWARD L. FORD
Chairman & Past-President
JOHN E. VANDIGRIFF
President
PHILIP BRANDENBURG
Vice-President
ROSS SCHRAEDER
Secretary
214-995-4921 D
214-237-4347 N
DON DOUGLAS
Treasurer
CRAIG BURRUS
At-Large Director
WALTER W. LEONARD
At-Large Director
WILLIAM E. BENSON
JACK E. LEWIS
ELMORE B. SCOTT
MARVIN L. FRALEY PHILIP LAWRENCE
CHARLES MUCHMORE ROBERT W. RICHTER
WILLIAM B. THOMPSON CARL YOUNG
Past-Presidents
APPOINTED STAFF
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Phone 301-530-5400
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Book News & Reviews Editor
NI BULLETIN
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Correspondence should be directed to those persons and addresses above for departments indicated. All other correspondence
should be mailed direct to NUMISMATICS INTERNATIONAL, P. O. BOX 670013, DALLAS, TEXAS 75367-0013.
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2
INSIDE N.I
MEMBERSHIP CHAIRMAN’S REPORT
January, 1994 Applications for Membership: The following persons have applied for
membership. If no written objections are received by March 1, 1994, then-
membership will become effective on that date.
2430 Leslie L. Crawley, Sr., 5929 So. Atlanta, Tulsa, OK 74105-7545
2431-MT John L. Reeves, 1 1531 Cromwell Circle, Dallas, TX 75229
(World Flora & Fauna, World Females, European Gold (Kings
& Queens)
DONATIONS REPORT
We have received the following donations since the last report.
Name
Donation
Preference of Use
BORKOWSKI, Ken
$5.00 Cash
NI BULLETIN Fund
BRUCK, Frederick
$25.00 Cash
General Operating Fund
COLES, Peter James
$20.00 Cash
NI Library Fund
DONOHUE, Bruce
$5.00 Cash
General Operating Fund
DROST, Fred
$15.00 Cash
NI BULLETIN Fund
DUERFELDT, P. H.
$10.00 Cash
NI Library Fund
EISEN, Stuart
$10.00 Cash
General Operating Fund
FUTAHASAHI, Hideo
$5.00 Cash
General Operating Fund
HINKLE, David
$50.00 Cash
General Operating Fund
HOGE, Robert W.
$5.00 Cash
General Operating Fund
HUNTER, Robert
$15.00 Cash
General Operating Fund
KULES, George
$10.00 Cash
General Operating Fund
LINN, Kenneth M.
$10.00 Cash
General Operating Fund
MAIER, Michael
$5.00 Cash
NI Library Fund
MAJOR, W. H.
$5.00 Cash
General Operating Fund
ORLOWSKI, Frank
$5.00 Cash
NI Library Fund
SCHOTT, Donald
$15.00 Cash
General Operating Fund
LIBRARIAN’S REPORT
I. Acknowledgement is made below to those who have donated material to the NI
Library:
3
American Numismatic Society
US40.MosP: 1992:MACC
MOSSMAN, PHILIP L.
Money of the American Colonies and Confederation. A numismatic,
economic and historical correlation. ANS Numismatic Studies, No.
20.
Pub. 1992, 314pp., illus.
Dennis J. Kroh
B A45 . KroD : 1 993 : ACRR
KROH, DENNIS J.
Ancient coin reference reviews. (Roman, Greek, and Byzantine
references cataloged.)
Pub. 1993, 107pp, not illus.
II. In addition to the above the Library would like to thank John L. Pieratt for
continuing to locate and provide us with additional material on Hell Bank Notes.
Granvyl G. Hulse, Jr., Book Librarian
James D. Haley, Periodical Librarian
"DENGA"
The "Denga", also called "Tenga" and "Denuschka", are Russian terms that came to
mean money in general. The word "Denga" was first applied to the small silver coins
that were struck by the Dukes of Moskow and Kiev as early as the second half of the
fourteenth century, and subsequently by the free cities of Novgorod and Pskof. These
Dengi coins were intended for circulation among the Tartars of eastern Russia, and
thus the style and denomination of the Tartar money was naturally adopted. The form
of these coins is generally small, oblong and irregular, but nearly circular specimens
have been found. In most instances these rather crude coins bear a portrait of the
ruler or that same personage on horseback with a spear or lance. The Denga was
divided into Half Denga pieces and one quarter pieces called "Poluschkas". The name
"Poluschka" is traceable to the early Russian custom of using animal skins as money,
and is derived from "Potu", the half of any article, and "Schkura", a skin. Two
"Poluschki" then represented the value of one hare skin.
Later issues of these types of coins are of billon and copper and the value of the
Denga degenerated into that of the Half Kopek. A copper "Para", or three Dengi
piece, was struck by Catherine II or Russia in 1771 and 1772 for circulation in
Moldavia and Wallachia.
(Submitted by R. R. Kutcher)
4
FROM THE MAILBOX
Other theories on " The Possible Origin of the $ Sian"
The attribution suggested by Mr. Wolfgang Bertsch ("The Possible Origin of the $
Sign", NI Bulletin , October, 1993, p.240 ) has been discarded as improbable by many
authorities including Eric Newman who presented a thoroughly documented slide
presentation about the origin of the dollar (peso) sign two or three years ago in the
ANA Numismatic Theatre program.
In 1965, Alvaro J. Moreno published a book in Mexico entitled $ EL SIGNO DE
PESOS.
Both Newman and Moreno mention all the theories and conclude that the sign
evolved from the abbreviation for pesos (ps).
The $ sign was used in the American colonies for almost half a century before
appearing in Mexico. Moreno says 1775. He also states "The transition of ps to our
actual peso sign $ was not made by Spaniards; it originated with English-speaking
people who had contacts with them" (My translation.)
The earliest Mexican document that I have been able to locate bearing the $ sign is
dated 1822. It is reproduced on page 43 of the book CASA DE MONEDA DE
MEXICO - PRESENCIA EN EL MUNDO 1536-1990. Editorial Miguel Angel Porrua.
Mexico. D.F. 1990.
Clyde Hubbard
Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
********************************************************************
"EBENEZER"
A variety of the Double Krone, or piece of 8 Marks, struck by Frederick HI of
Denmark was called an "Ebenezer". These coins were issued to commemorate the
unsuccessful attempt of the Swedes to take Copenhagen on February 11, 1659. The
obverse has the King’s initials crowned, with the inscription "DOMINVS
PROVIDEBIT and EBENEZER", with the latter word referring to the memorial stone
mentioned in First Samuel, of the Bible. On the reverse is a hand grasping at a
crown which is being severed from the arm by a sword. Here the motto reads "SOLI
DEO GLORIA".
(Submitted by R. R. Kutcher)
*********************************************************************
MULE
A Mule, or Hybrid, is a coin, token or medal whose obverse die is not matched with
its official or regular reverse die.
5
THE AUSTRALIAN FANTASY CROWN
Mike Davis, Piqua, Ohio, Nl it 2392
I recently discovered an unusual similarity between two coins that have different
designers a half a world apart. They have the same date, denomination, metal
content, and most unusual, almost the same design.
One of the coins is the 1967 Canadian Dollar, issued for the centennial of the
Confederation, depicting a Canadian goose in flight. It was designed by Alex
Colville, and was minted at Ottawa in silver.
The other "coin" is the Australian Fantasy Dollar, issued privately in 1967 by the
Australian Coin Review (a monthly coin magazine). This came about through a
design contest. It depicts a goose or swan in flight.
This coin was designed by Andor Meszaros, and was minted by John Pinches of
London, England. There were 1500 struck in uncirculated and 750 in proof. The
issue price for these was A$ 10.35 until November, 1968.
Since the first official Australian dollar coin was struck in 1984, 1 would say that this
coin was seventeen years ahead of its time.
6
THE WAKO IN JAPANESE COINAGE HISTORY
Francis J. Gemer, Topeka , Kansas, NI # 1085
Chinese = Wok’on or Wo-k’ou
Korean = Woe-ku: "Stunted man, dwarf
Japanese = Wako; "Wa-" = "Japanese", "-ko" = "invaders", eventually:
"robbers" (Japanese invaders, robbers)
Japanese pirates have, like their Western counter-parts, impacted the history of
nations. In Europe there were the English "Sea Dogs", Dutch "Freebooters", and the
amalgam "Buccaneers" in America’s Caribbean Sea. In the Far East, the name to fear
was "Wako".
The height of operation for the Japanese pirates was essentially between the years of
1300 and 1520; however, the history of Japanese piracy greatly preceded their name
by centuries. It was during the Ming period of China that they played a major role
in the currency history of Japan as well as the political history of China. The "first"
reported "Wo-k’ou" raid, according to Kwan-wai So, was in 1223; Yosaburo
Takekoshi (earlier translated work spells it Takegoshi) reported it as a (Wako) raid
against China in 1369. However, both agree that Japanese pirates were raiding the
Korean coast in the 13th century regardless of name. As to these sea adventurers,
they called themselves Kaizoku (navy).
Essentially, during the Ashikaga period (1338-1573) Japan opened large foreign
intercourse with Korea and China with the intent to import copper coins while the
central government ignored their production, as well as to introduce coins of silver
and gold. Some claim that the Wako were part of the state’s effort to obtain those
silver and gold coins without benefit of trade. Though during this period there was
no one firm, central government in control of the Japanese nation, perhaps the Wako
were at times the informal naval arm of local lords.
The existence of raw materials in Japan did not necessitate the actual production of
coins though the technical knowledge may have been there since the seventh century.
Gold and silver was being produced by the mines on Sado-shima for trade with the
Chinese Empire to secure copper and silver coins from the Ming Emperors (1368-
1644) in legal trade. On the other hand what constituted legal trade seemed to be at
variance at times, regarding who was trading with whom at the actual transaction
level irrespective of what governments were saying.
It is generally concluded that a portion of the history of the Wako is closely
associated with the history and growth to power of the Ouchi family of Kyushu.
Other families were also to benefit and gain power such as the Hosokawa clan.
However, that does not mean that full control was a matter of fact over the former.
Pirate alliances were frequently ones of convenience for all concerned, and many
Wako fleets and crews were reportedly composed of one-third Chinese (and probably
some Koreans, Formosans, and Loochoo/Okinawan sailors). According to other
reports the Japanese constituted only 30% and the remainder Chinese! The
7
composition was never secure, economic times and political winds dictated the
temporary careers of many.
The following is a brief overview of the impact and history of the Wak5 in Japanese
coinage. Few contemporary records outside of the Chinese and Korean sources exist;
as to the actual coinage quantities or nature of the loot, it can only be described in
general terms. Like all pirates, they maintained no bookkeeping records for posterity.
500 - 700 AD
593-641
Chinese coins (Wu-chu) imported to Japan through good will
ambassadors from Liu Sung, Wei, and Liang Empires. (Fig. 1)
Fig. 1. Liu Sung Coin Fig. 2. T’ang Coin
(424-454 AD) (618-907 AD )
655-671 T’ang dynasty coins brought to Japan. (Fig. 2)
683 Copper coins authorized to be used.
708 Birth of Japanese coins with discovery of copper and minting of
"Wado kaichin"; silver coins authorized June 3rd and copper coins 2
months later ("Wado-kaiho" inscription). (Fig. 3)
Fig. 3. Wado-kaiho
709 Private minting of silver coins prohibited.
710 Use of silver coins prohibited.
724-748 Emperor Shomu prompted the building of Kokubunji Daibutsu by the
use of melted coins, a practice followed by other succeeding generals
and emperors.
8
As old as recorded history, coastal areas evolve robbers at sea and Japan presented
no unusual history in this light. In time it was exposed to the advanced culture of
China and adopted the economic benefits of coinage. Though predominately
maintaining bartering over most of the Islands, the official recognition of and use of
coins begins early in its historical contact with other nations. Japan not only accepted
Chinese coins but began to mint its own and entered into the world of international
trade.
700 - 1000 AD
5/936 The ambitious Sumitomo Nagayoshi Fujiwara, Governor of Iyo
Province, organized the robbers along the coast and headquartered at
Hiburishima, attacking and plundering ships.
6/937 Yoshihiko Ki, new Governor of Iyo was ordered to chastise the pirates.
938 Ki’s approach of leniency broke the power of Sumitomo but then
Masakado Taira raised an army and disrupted the order of the land and
Sumitomo attacked Vice-Governor Kokate Fujiwara of Bizen and
subdued him.
940 Masakado killed by Sadamori Taira & Hidesato Fujiwara; imperial
court ordered Yoshifuru Ono and Prince Mototsune to attack
Sumitomo; the latter captured the mint at Suwo, attacked Yahata-gun
Tosa, Sanuki and Awa, Bingo.
4/94 1 Sumitomo attacked and captured Dazaifu (Kyushu); Y oshifuru attacked
at Hakata and beat Sumitomo (who then went to Iyo where he was
killed).
4/958 Engi-tsuho ceased to be minted, new coins to be inscribed Kengen-
taiho (last officially minted coins of central government until 1591).
987 Those who refused to use money (in Japan) were admonished; coins
predominated in urban areas, government’s encouragement as means
to increase circulation and to collect taxes in convenient form.
During this period the use of coins is expanded in the economy and becomes a
measure of wealth. With wealth is power and with power, power struggles. Piracy
becomes a major concern and seems to become organized during this period.
Initially, attempts are made to destroy the robbers (pirates). Again, as reflected
throughout history where there are power struggles, a fine line is drawn between the
legal leaders and those who exhibit a form of power (strength at sea), alliances evolve
as leaders attempt to extend their areas of control and expand their base of wealth.
1000 - 1300 AD
1072 Emperor Shirakawa has 3000 Buddha statues cast, shortages in coins
9
created and trade with Tang and Sung China encouraged; Chinese
coins "over appreciated", driving Japanese coins to be devalued. (Fig.
4)
Fig. 4. Engi Tsuho (907 AD)
1105 Wako occupy Miyakojima in the LooChoo (Okinawa) Islands.
1193 Emperor Toba prohibited circulation of foreign coins (Northern and
Southern Sung were so plentiful in circulation Gresham’s law
operates). (Figs. 5 and 6)
Fig. 5. Northern Sung Fig. 6. Southern Sung
(1119 AD) (1127 AD)
1223
First Wako raid on Korean soil. Followed by intermittent raids
through to 1230.
1261
Emperor Kameyama and Shogun Hojo Tokimune agree to send envoy
to China to obtain coin.
1265
Japanese pirates decrease impacting coast of Korea due to Mongol
conquest and strength.
1276
Korean King Kyobin, with 5 divisions, defeated in (last?) battle in
Genra Province by pirates.
1290
By this time Regent Hojo Tokimune attempts to buy Southern Sung
coins with gold.
Drought and famine spreads across Japan (1222, 1224, 1225, 1257) and food
shortages cause occasional cannibalism. Many of the raiders seeking relief from the
perils of starvation and the Shokyu War were from Tsushima and Matsura with some
from Kyushu. Economic demands for coins increased as the central government
ceases minting but demands taxes to be collected in coin, even in outlying areas away
from the capital. Supply and demand factors appear to motivate the seafarers to go
abroad for food supply and "trading materials", distribution of wealth in coastal areas
in
had become constricted. Hence, with the decrease of coin availability, trade goods
and coins could only be obtained through pirating, and the production of ersatz
copies, e.g. "shima-sen". The latter were localized productions with diverse
inscriptions, replacing perhaps one of the original Chinese characters and are
somewhat scarce. This was also the period for the start of the bita-sen (Fig. 7)
manufacture, an effort to make more accurate copies of the Chinese coins of the 1 1th
century.
1300 - 1400 AD
1336 Official trade with China discontinues but semi-official trade (Tenryu
Temple Trade) initiated to secure funds to build temple dedicated to
Emperor Go-Daigo. (This lasts until 1368.)
1338 During the Ashikaga period (1338-1573) the central government tended
to neglect coinage though public usage existed and relied on imported
coins, pirate plunder, privately minted, debased, and/or counterfeited
Chinese coins.
1350 Wako increase raids on Korea; February raid on Kucheng and Chulin
cost 300 Wako lives. An April raid of 100 pirate ships is made on
Nanking and another Chinese city.
1360 Prior to 1364 Ouchi Hiroyo (father of Ouchi Yoshiro) resisted
Ashikawa Yoshimitsu and as governor of Suwo presented tens of
thousands of Yuan dynasty Chinese coins (Fig. 8 and probably
including Southern Sung type. Fig. 9) as gifts though Suwo had little
arable land from which to earn money.
Fig. 8. Yuan/Mongol Fig. 9. Southern Sung
(1351 AD) (1225 AD)
1363 Wako invade Kojeto Island (Korea) and enter into a peace accord with
Korean government.
11
1367
One year before Ashikaga Yoshimitsu succeeded to the Shogunate,
Korea sends two emissaries to Japan regarding suppression of pirates
attacking the port of Gappo; friendly intercourse with China becomes
important but not committed to for over 30 years (1401).
1368-1398 Hung-wu (1st Ming Emperor) attempts to get Japan to curtail Wako
activity in exchange of receiving tribute, he promised to repatriate
captured pirates and offered "support" from Chinese court (efforts
failed as the Shogun and Prince Kanenaga, military governor of
Kyushu, both reject submission to the Ming throne as demanded).
Raids against Korean coast continues, forcing the move of the capital
in 1376 from Seoul to Tyolwon (?) (or Tetsugen). Approximately 378
raids on Korean coast between 1375-1388.
1380 Diplomatic relations between China and Japan terminated until 1400-1.
1384 (?) Ouchi Yoshihiro (1355-1400) attempts invasion of Korea; receives
Korean tribute to cease "invasions" (Wako raids), tributes extend into
Yoshioki’s rule.
1388 Ashikaga Yoshimitsu requests open trade with Ming Emperor, who
then designates Yoshimitsu as "King of Japan" (calls himself a subject
of the Ming throne).
1393 Shimazu family, controlling the Wako of the Kyushu coast, collect
taxes in copper money.
During this century the island kingdom of Japan undergoes a major change in its
trading needs. Greater contact with Korea and China created a source for coinage to
Japan in exchange for Japanese products (sulphur, fans, lacquer-works, and swords).
A more complex economy was evolving in Japan, a greater reliance on coins over a
larger area and in more types of transactions. Attempts to make the Japanese
produced coins a little unique, some bita-sen were the product of an altered Chinese
coin where a part of the character was changed. (See: Jones).
1400 - 1500
1400 Yoshihiro transports his army to his "merchant" port of Sakai by sea
to confront the Shogun, but is defeated and killed; official trade issues:
Japanese tribute to Ming China has value 10 x as much as prescription
tribute established at 34,700 kan*; Japanese insisted on another 10,000
kan, Chinese added 1,500 coins (1-1/2 kan); Chinese fleet strongest in
the Eastern world.
* Kan = 1,000 mon = 8.2672 lbs.
1404 Yung-lo (1402-24, 3rd Ming Emperor) arranged with Yoshimitsu for
two Japanese trade ships every 10 years to visit China and in return
China will return "gifts" of copper coins to control the pirates; 6
12
embassies were sent from Japan instead of one.
1410
1411
7/20/1419
1420
1424
1432
1434
1435
Again 6 embassies were sent instead of one; agreement changed to
three ships every 10 years. The kentoshi (temporary envoy to China)
opened the trading opportunities; diplomatic officials lost their political
role and became commercial agents by the role of middle-man for
trade items (swords, gold, silver, sulphur for copper coins); Wako at
times presented as merchants, but because of strict restrictions on trade
regular merchants at times became adventurers (acting like Wako);
traders were replaced by smugglers who met to exchange goods in
Formosa.
"Kyo-sen" (Kyoto minted) became "bad" (depreciated) coin as those
of all others minted in Japan when Chinese coins called Eiraku, a
Japanese translation of "Yung-lo", became common in Japan. Some
claim the depreciated coins were those of Soma, Ohashu Province.
The Yung-lo "dated" coins (Fig. 10) had a higher rate of acceptance.
The Wako became the primary source for "good" coins.
Fig. 10. Yung-lo (1402-24)
Shogun Yoshimochi denies responsibility for pirates to Ming Emperor
but "would try to enforce the law."
W'ako raid with 30 ships and 2000 men defeated at Kinchow
(Liaotung).
Trade goods from Japan valued at 217,000 cash plus equal amount in
silver arrives in China, Chinese offer 34,700+ taels and traders accept
but negotiate for and get additional 10,000 cash.
Beginning of sending 1 1 embassies with 9 ships instead of 3 to China,
China asks "why?". Ships return to Japan with 30,000,000 coins.
Meanwhile Ouchi Yoshinori promises to take steps to suppress Wako.
Official mission of trade sent to China but returns without the expected
30,000,000 coins.
Chinese fleet rotting at the docks; Emperor Yung-lo focuses on looking
inward (landward) and ignores rest of the world (seaward) after the
successes of Admiral Chung-Ho demonstrated the power and extent of
the Imperial fleet.
13
1438
Wako raid: T’ai-chou and Ningpo prefectures, and city of Ch’ang-kuo.
1440-1500 Iron coins (Akusen = "bad coin", Fig. 11) appear and principally used
around Kyoto; lead coins in Ise; Eiraku-sen in Hakata and Sakai
(Wako centers). The Aku-sen were particularly a poor quality bita-sen.
Fig. 11. Akusen
1443 Wako raid Kainei (this and 1438 raids were joint Chinese- Japanese
pirate efforts.
8/1451 Priest Inho (enjoy to Ming court) reported in diary the fear of the
coastal Chinese of Japanese traders, often running away believing them
to be pirates. Four of the ten ships on official mission to China are
sponsored by local lords of Western Japan.
1453 China sends 50,000 strings of cash (50,000,000 coins) to Japan (aboard
the 1451 mission ships). Some report the ships contained 60,000,000,
which included the 30,000,000 not sent in the earlier 1434 ships.
1454 Ming Emperor advised to ship large quantity of cash (coin) to Japan
as it did between 1403-23.
1457 Yoshimasa pleads for more cash (in need of financial support).
1457-1465 First major effort made of smuggling into China by Japanese by
invitation of Chinese "traders".
1467-1477 Onin Wars create power struggles in Japan; no central government in
full control/power, local feudal lords contend for expansion of realms.
1477 Sh5gun Yoshimasa requests extra cash and receives 50,000 Kan from
Ming China.
1480 Messages from Ashikaga Yoshimasa requesting an additional 100,000
kan (100,000,000 coins) of cash from China.
1491-1493 Keigo (Chief Envoy to the Ming Court) attempts to negotiate value of
trade swords supplied by Japan, Ming set value at 300 mon, Keigo sets
value at 1800 mon as part of tribute in exchange for silver coin;
threatens the court that if he couldn’t get the rate then maybe the
pirates couldn’t be controlled.
14
The power of the Wako becomes a major threat to China, it no longer involves
isolated raids on shipping or forays on small coastal villages. A national policy in
Japan is formulated so as to use the pirates rather than eliminate them, though at
times such "use" was to ignore them as outlaws, or to witness them to be naval
auxiliary forces of local lords (a shadow of legitimacy), or view them as lawful
traders who were cheated and branded by the cheaters as outlaws. International
trading and diplomacy whereby China is the less powerful becomes evident; the
"Middle Kingdom" was usually in the position to direct other nations, it is apparent
it could no longer dictate conditions without devastating cost.
1500 - 1600
1504 Famine in Aizu (Tohoku region) brings price of 1 sho (1,400 grams)
of rice to 100 sen in Chinese coin (Takuan Tung Pao), a Sung dynasty
coin suggesting the source of local currency to be Tohoku Wako who
obtained it during the Sung period. (Fig. 12)
Fig. 12. Ta Kuan (1107-11 AD)
1505 Both Ouchi Yoshioki (1477-1528) and Shogun Ashikaga Yoshizumi
send envoys to Ming Court, the former as "Governor of Southern
Japan"; conflict between envoys as to "authority" leads to fighting and
ultimate raids by returning Wako (Ouchi’ s forces) enroute to Japan;
Ouchi’s attempt to extract tribute failed, imposes "trading tax" on
incoming ships and raids China when the trade becomes unfavorable.
1508 Ouchi Yoshioki installs Ashikaga Yoshitane as Sho-gun and becomes
Regent (Kanryo) for 1 1 years; presents money to Hongwanji temple in
Osaka; has sufficient money to fund armies to expand realm from 3
provinces to 7 and impact Shogunate.
1520 Ouchi advised by War Minister Murakami of need for ships to invade
Korea (Wako of Sanuki region enlisted); independently, Ouchi invades
Korea and demands tribute as part of peace proposal from Zenra
Province; Japanese composition of Wako crews still dominate but
decline setting in as Chinese crew members increase.
1523 Ouchi and Hosokawa families send "envoys" to Ming Court; Shusetsu
Gendo represented the Ouchi family and So Sokyo the Hasakawas.
1536 Ouchi Yoshitaka (1507-51) contributed a large amount of coin to the
15
1540
1541
1544
1545
1549
1550
1552
1553
1554
1555
1557
1563
Imperial Court (paid for the coronation of the Emperor Go-Nara);
Ouchi family controls sufficient trade between China, Korea, and Japan
to send trade negotiators as if on behalf of the government of Japan;
their "trading" wealth enable them to send more than 1,000 kan (1
million mon) of coin every year to the Imperial Court in Kyoto.
Beginning of rise in copper mine output and export to China brings
coins from China; silver also exported for copper Chinese coins;
famine in China drive many into piracy; Ouchi again sends "envoy" to
Chinese court; term "Wo" applied to any and all pirates regardless of
"nationality" or origin.
Japanese pirates led by a Chinese named Wang Chih (Ochoku in
Japanese), made Fukue of Goto Islands headquarters; invited by
Takanobu Matsuura to Hirado to set up residence at Miyanomachi;
Ochoku referred to self as "King of Ki"; Central Government
essentially powerless.
Most Wako leaders appear to be Chinese "traders" who recmit poor
from Japanese coastal area, or leaders of marauding bands terrorizing
their own countrymen; composition of Wako decidedly less Japanese
(20-30%) and not having Japan as source of origin.
Ming Emperor prohibits trade with Japan due to Wako.
Ouchi sends another "envoy" to Ming Court.
Ochoku ’s power peaks but Portuguese guns begin to turn the tide and
displace Ochoku.
Huang-yen (Chekiang Province) falls to 10,000 Wako!
Ochoku threatens to invade China on 1,000 mile front, at the same
time!
1,900 Wako killed in one battle by Commander of War Minister,
Chang Chi.
Portuguese begin to rid the seas of pirates; largest number of pirate
raids (34) made on Chinese coast; raid on Cholla Province (Korea)
leads to suspended relations with Japan.
Fall of Ouchi family from power with the suicide of Yoshinage (?-
1557) after defeat by invading samurai under daimyo Mori Motonari.
A pirate reported a raid that included 7 bands: 1,300 men, 137 vessels
plus 600 fisherman (auxiliary crew?), including 200-300 Chinese
fellow pirates.
16
1567-1572 Wako activities begin to gradually decline.
1575 Japanese mined gold goes into coins. (Fig. 13)
Fig. 13. Tenshonago Oban (1575) (reduced size)
1582 Wako excursions into Philippine waters; 26 ships under a leader named
Taifusa repulsed by artillery.
1588 Hideyoshi conquered Kyushu and ordered an end to piracy.
1591 Shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi attempts to reinstate central government
minting with gold coins (Tensho Oban) and silver coin (Suruga
Ginban) two years later.
1600 Japan unified under Tokugawa Ieyasu; first centralized copper coinage
Fig. 14. Keicho Tsuho (1606)
During the mid-1500’s free trade and officially licensed trade became confusing as
it frequently depended on the official and his whim (?). The Ming throne may have
insisted on limited, licensed trade at fixed times but on other levels a quasi-legal trade
existed between Japan and China.
The contemporary Chinese records appear to be the primary source for research for
this historical period and they clearly indicated traders and officials encouraged
imports from Japan; at times only the Chinese traders did the encouraging! From the
view of some officials in Ming China those who were not licensed were the "Wako"
(regardless if they were not sea-borne). It was not unusual for the Chinese trader to
join, if not lead, the Wako when in disagreement with officials as to legal/licensed
trading to avoid punishment and continue "business". The idea apparently was if you
did trade illegally you were going to be punished so why not just jump into the
shipping, raiding, and trading whole hog, you can oniy hang (or lose your head) once.
The Wako were no longer a "Japanese" force (as few as 20% of a raiding force might
be Japanese) and no longer only a band of sea robbers. The Ming throne was being
threatened primarily not by outsiders from the sea but from within and from the north
(Manchu).
17
When Japan was exporting silver to China they would wait off shore until permission
to land was granted, meanwhile the onshore traders were also waiting. It was easier
to beat the bureaucrats by smuggling so "trade" agreements were made regardless and
Wako become traders and the traders Wako.
As in 1814, pirates and leaders formulated an alliance to achieve a military and
political end when Jean Lafitte and Gen. Andrew Jackson defeated a superior force
in the Battle of New Orleans. Lafitte provided the much needed artillery and powder,
as well as trained fighters. The Wako and the Japanese daimyos were often in the
same situation of scratching each others backs. In Japan that helped to bring about
a supply of coins in a new and growing economy. It can be seen that the Wako
ceased to play a role in Japan’s economy once minting of coins was re-established,
the government was centralized, new sea powers appeared (the Spanish and
Portuguese), and the weak Ming dynasty fell. Some even claim that the "Wako" were
a major contributor to demise of the Ming.
During the late Wako period (1400-1500) local lords attempted to issue their own
coins but few were successful in maintaining a mint for an extended period of time.
The "bita-sen", a copy of the more popular Eirakusen (a generic term by some authors
for all imported Chinese coins, even those prior to Yung-lo), varied much in quality.
The Central Government of Japan brought large quantities into the island kingdom to
establish its economic power base as well as to contribute to a more advanced
economic system. However, coin circulation would seem to be limited during the
unsettled political conditions. Thus, the main source for coins in the medieval period
of Japan for the outlying areas, away from the capital where feudal lords who were
engaged in power struggles and where international contacts were made (Western
Japan), was from the traders and Wako.
Bibliography:
Brown, Delmer M., "Money Economy in Medieval Japan"; Far Eastern Association
Monograph #7; Yale University, New Haven, CT (1951).
Hazard, B. H., "The Formative Years of the Wako - 1223-63"; Monumenta Nipponica,
XXII (Jan. 67), pp.260-77.
Jacobs, Norman and Vermeule, Cornelius III, "Japanese Coinage"; Numismatic
Review , New York (1972).
Japanese Coin and Money Association, Japanese Coin and Money Catalogue, 1983.
Jones, Michael, Catalog of Japanese Cash Coinage ; privately printed, 1985.
Jorgensen, Holger, Old Coins of China, A Guide to Their Identification', 1962 Reprint.
Papinot, E., Historical & Geographical Dictionary of Japan', Ch. E. Tuttle Co.,
Vermont (1974 reprint of 1910 ed.).
So, Kwan-wai, Japanese Piracy in Ming China During the 16th Century-, Michigan
University Press (1975).
Takekoshi, Yosoburo, The Story of the Wako', Kenkyusho Ltd., Tokyo (1942?).
, The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan, Vol. 1,2,3;
Dawsons of Pall Mall, London (1967).
18
THE RECALL OF ROMANIA’S NICKEL COINAGE
Peter S. Horvitz, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, NI # 2215
Between 1936 and 1938 Romania issued a series of coins in pure nickel. The series
consisted of 100 Lei coins dated 1936 and 1938 (KM #54) and 50 Lei coins dated
1937 and 1938 (KM #55).
The 100 Lei coins have a diameter of 27 millimeters, weight 8.2 grams, and were
struck by the Bucharest mint. Their obverse shows the bare head of King Carol II
facing left. The obverse legend is CAROL II REGELE ROMANILOR. The
signature of the engraver, I. Jalea, appears under the neck. The reverse shows the
crowned small coat of arms of Romania separating the denomination of 100 and LEI,
surrounded by a wreath of oak and laurel. The date, 1936 or 1938, appears at the
bottom. The 1936 coinage had an issue of 20,230,000. The 1938 issue was much
smaller, only 3,250,000. These figures are according to recent editions of Krause-
Mishler. Earlier editions of Krause-Mishler and Modern Romanian Coins 1867-1966,
by Aurelio Rauta (Salamanca, 1974) give the figure for the 1936 issue as 16,675,000.
The edge of all these coins is reeded with a wavy line and two stars.
The 50 Lei coins measure 24 millimeters, weight 5.83 grams, and were also struck
in Bucharest. The obverse shows the head of King Carol II in the helmet of the
Royal Guard facing left. The legend is the same as on the 100 Lei coin. This coin
was also engraved by I. Jalea, but is not signed. The reverse is the same as the 100
Lei coin except for the denomination. The dates at the bottom are 1937 and 1938.
The 1937 issue was 12,000,000. The 1938 issue was 8,000,000.
These coins were popular with the Romanian public because of the beauty of their
designs, their brilliant surfaces, and their endurance. However, the public was soon
disappointed when the government ordered the coins recalled.
Shortly after the 1938 issue of these coins, it was realized that these coins, pure nickel
as they were, were an excellent resource for a critical war material which suddenly,
with increased German aggression, seemed a critical need. According to Rauta’ s
original figures, 86% of the entire issue was recovered. According the Krause-
Mishler’s revised figures, 84% of the 50 Lei coins and 73% of the 100 Lei coins were
recovered.
19
In preparation for the smelting of these coins, they were prepared by being scored on
each side with a series of parallel incisions, nine lines per side on the 100 Lei coins.
This scoring was done by machinery. The example that illustrates this article
somehow escaped smelting after its preparation. Perhaps, it was rescued as a souvenir
by a workman at the smelting facility.
The destruction of the majority of these issues explains why these coins are far
scarcer than their original large issues would indicate. The 1938 100 Lei is
particularly difficult to find. Scored examples, as the one shown here, are
undoubtedly rare indeed.
********************************************************************
"CABES" AND "BOSS”
"Cabes" is the name of some African money of account, and "Boss" is another native
name for some money of account (cowries). One thousand cowries were equal to one
Boss Dollar, and one thousand six hundred cowries were equal to one small Cabes.
Two thousand cowries were needed to make one large Cabes. When converted into
an actual monetary unit, the small Cabes (1,600 cowries) was equal to one-sixteenth
of an ounce of gold dust.
(Submitted by R. R. Kutcher)
**** ******************************* **********************************
"UMPYO"
A silver coin of Korea, issued in the nineteenth year of the Emperor Tai (A.D. 1882),
was called "Umpyo". These pieces were circular, but without the central square hole.
Three different denomination were struck, but minting ceased in 1883. Similar coins
called "Daidong Chum" were the same, but with a porcelain center on the reverse.
These Daidong Chum were minted in 1882 only, but were never put into circulation.
They were of the one, two and three Chum denominations also.
(Submitted by R. R. Kutcher)
'k'k'k'k'k-k'k'k'k'k
THE "HABITANT" TOKENS OF CANADA
In 1837, through an ordinance passed by the special Council, the four banks doing
business in Lower Canada were authorized to issue regular bank tokens. As these
tokens portray the figure of a French-Canadian farmer on the obverse, they are known
as the "Habitant" tokens, and came to be recognized and accepted as a regular
provincial coinage.
(Submitted by R. R. Kutcher)
20
The Casting of a Cash Coin
Chris Shappell, Federal Way, Washington, NI # 2418
The famed cash coins of China, as well as other nations of Asia, were always cast
with molds throughout their history, as opposed to the Western tradition of striking
coins with dies. However, just how these common "cash" coins of bronze, copper,
brass and iron, were cast is not well known to many non-cash collectors. The
following should shed some light to one of those dark comers of numismatic
knowledge - the Oriental coin casting process. It must be remembered that the
casting process was dynamic and what is explained here is how it existed during the
Q’ing (formerly spelled Ch’ing) Dynasty (1644-1911). Improvements had been made
in this process since it was first used for cash coins centuries ago.
Casting and minting have some striking similarities. A design (character arrangement
and style) must be selected. A model of that design is carved out of a light colored
material, usually ivory, akin to the plaster models of the West. The models were
produced in a scale slightly larger than the eventual coins with a circular hole. Once
imperial approval has been achieved, the design is transferred onto a large thin slab
of lead, used for its pliancy, from the ivory sample by repeated pounding with a
mallet. With a suitable lead image, several individual mother coins would be cast in
much the same manner as the eventual circulation coins.
Mother coins varied little from the circulation coins they produced; the characters
were much sharper, the edges better defined, and dimensions more exact. Freshly
cast, the mother coins carried a round hole like the sample cash. It was the duty of
a "mint official" to carve the hole square by hand. Mother coins served much the
same purpose as hubs to today. They were used to impress the sand in cubicles to
create molds for the casting. After several acceptable mother coins were made, they
would then go to the next step of manufacture.
Two or more boxes were patiently filed with compacted fine sand. Sand was a most
prudent material to use in molds; it took to images of mother coins brilliantly, it
allowed trapped air to escape without effecting the coins, and it was easy to re-use.
A mint worker had to be very careful when using sand. If one packed their sand too
tight, the more likely large air pockets would form on the coins. If one packed the
sand too loose, the resulting coins would be much too heavy. The entire mold would
receive a dusting of charcoal powder before the next step. As the charcoal burned,
the molten metal was more likely to fill even the most diminutive voids in the
characters. The result was coins with strong legends. A channel was dug down the
center of one side of the mold. On either side of this channel, mother coins would
be lined up edge to edge in rows several coins across. An identical process formed
the opposite, or reverse, side of the mold. Brought together with careful skill, the two
halves of the mold would be then tied together.
In a crucible a mint worker would conscientiously mix together the proper metallic
elements - copper, zinc, tin - as specified by the emperor, into a molten slurry. Using
21
a ladle small amounts of metal would be sent down the central channel until the entire
mold had been filled. The multitude of coins, all connected, would be allowed to
cool. These connected coins are called a "tree" for their obvious resemblance. The
central channel is the thick "trunk" and the coins branch from there as "leaves".
Metal shrinks as it cools and the "tree" of cash coins could easily be removed from
the molds. This destroys the molds. The individual coins are clipped from the "tree"
with metal shears. At this point, we are left with a mess of coins that could go out
into circulation if it wasn’t for their unattractiveness. There is a sharp line along the
edge, where the two halves of the mold met, a blunt edge where the coin was
connected to either another or the "trunk" of the tree, and black spots all over the
surface except for where there are chunks of remaining sand. The remainder of the
minting process concerns making these coins as beautiful as possible.
Though usually done before the coins were separated, a wire brush was whisked over
the coins to remove lingering remainders of sand as well as to even out any unsightly
bumps and excess lines on the coins’ surfaces. The square hole of the cash coin
comes in handy to improve the image of the edge. All coins, after being aligned
through their holes on a square stick, would have their edges filed with a rasp or
ground with a stone wheel thus removing the sharp edge. If round-holed coins were
lined up on a round stick, more frustration with rotating coins than smooth edges
would result. To remove the black spots, several thousand coins were placed into a
tub with chaff and water and then swished back and forth by a couple of particularly
muscle bound mint workers for hours.
Now with nearly perfect cash, only the counting is left before distribution. Off to a
counting room the coins would go to be placed into strings, or guan as the Chinese
would say, of several hundred to several thousand. The coins were now ready for
placement into the hands of the public.
Probably due to its inefficiency compared to the machine made struck coins of the
West, cast coins died out in China and the rest of Asia around the end of the last
emperor’s reign in 1911. The tremendous skill required to make several molds out
of such an easily destructible material, the extra undertaking of so carefully producing
mother coins, the superfluous energy required in "prettying up the coins" after being
made just could not compete with the speedy new machines of Europe and America,
especially when one considers that the coins were only worth one tenth of a cent!
Unfortunately, the cast coin was another tradition lost to progress.
Sources
Burger, Wemer, Ch’ing Cash Until 1735 , 1976 Taipei.
About the Author
Chris Shappell is a 16 year old young numismatist who is interested in becoming a
numismatic writer. He has been published recently in Numismatic News and Coin
World , as well as in other local and national club publications.
22
BOOK NEWS & REVIEWS
PARA 94. By Guvendik Fisekcioglu. 80 pages, 6-1/4 x 9-1/2 inches, stiff covers.
Available from the author at: P.K. 665, Sisli, 80225 Istanbul, Turkey. Price is
$12.00 postpaid (cash requested).
This is the eleventh volume of this well known annual which lists all the coins,
banknotes, tokens, and medals struck in the Ottoman Empire since 1839 and in the
Republic of Turkey since its beginning.
The rarities are clearly marked and the pricing reflects the inflation afflicting the
Turkish lira since the last volume was printed. This causes valuations to be in the
millions of liras because the exchange rate is now about 12,000 liras to one U.S.
dollar.
Collectors will notice in the Republican coin section the entries for the 1993 regular
coins from 50 to 5,000 liras, and under the "special issues," five new coins, two in
gold (500,000 liras) and three in silver (50,000 liras). Pages 70 through 76 of the
work contain illustrations of interesting coins and medals from previous years. In the
listing of banknotes, only the 500,000 liras note is new. It features Ataturk on the
face and Canakkale on the back.
The author has again succeeded in producing a very fine reference work on his
country’s numismatic output which forms an excellent supplement to the Krause-
Mishler’s catalogues.
Reviewed by Kenneth M. MacKenzie
EUGIUS - AUF MUZEN, MEDAILLER, MARKEN, UND PLAKETTEN. By
Hdfried Speyer. German text, 155 pages, 5-1/4 x 8-1/4 inches, stiff card cover.
Available from Claude Proulx, 1810 Gouin, Val David, Quebec, Canada JOT 2N0.
Price is US$18.00, postpaid.
The book is an annotated catalogue of 122 medals commemorating Saint Eligius (Eloi
in French) and 47 coins which he designed and minted for three successive Kings of
France during his lifetime (A.D. 588-659). For each medal there is a photograph of
both sides followed by background and technical data on the piece. Saint Eligius is
the patron saint of numismatists, goldsmiths, medalists, and blacksmiths. He is very
popular in France and Germany.
Reviewed by Jerry Remick
23
MEMBER NOTICE PAGE
David Mullins, P. O. Box 17571, Nashville, TN 37217: I need help in locating a
Malta 1977 1 Pound (KM-45) coin that is for sale in Uncirculated condition. If you
have one for sale please let me know. Since 1977 I have never seen this coin for
sale!
Gustav Lompa. Leuchterstr. 221. 51069 Koln. Germany; WANTED - Medals
relating to Ottoman Empire history (persons, events). Single offers or lists welcome.
Please describe and write before mailing.
Gerhard Schon, Postfach 71 09 08, D-81459, Miinchen, Germany: BUY OR
BORROW for my own reference - MODERN GOLD/SILVER COINS by the
Gold/Silver Institute, from the beginning of the series in the 1960s up to the 1984
issue. Please write before mailing.
William Snyder, P. O. Box 1242, Cookeville. TN 38503: Information on error coins
available, and wanted. A data base of known World mis-struck coins is being kept.
Over 1400 different brockages, off-centers, double strikes, etc. are listed in detail. If
you would like information on the coins of any country, or can provide information
on any that you own, or have seen for sale, please write.
Ralph A. Cannito, P. Q. Box 304, Washington, NJ 07882: WANTED -
Islamic/Arabic hammered silver coinage. From 622 AD to 1900 AD; especially
interested in rupees, multiple and Nazarana rupees of Afghanistan, Indian Princely
States and the Mughal Empire. Also interested in Ottoman & Persian Empire silver
coinage and many others. Buying one coin or a collection. Dealers and collectors
offers are welcome.
Phil Wing, P. O. Drawer 58204, Cincinnati, Ohio 45258; British Coins Wanted -
All Hammered silver and gold coins Fine and Better. All silver coins 1660-1760 VF
or Better. All gold Guineas VF or Better. Will buy for cash or trade for other coins.
Please send or write.
Gerhard Schon, Postfach 71 09 08, D-81459 Miinchen, Germany: WANTED FOR
CATALOGING- ANDORRA 1960/1965 all patterns and mules of the medallic issues
by Hans Schulman (25, 50 Diners). Also 1873 ANDORRAN private pattern 5
C6ntimos in bronze or nickel, 10 C6ntimos in nickel.
NI ATTRIBUTION SERVICE: See pages 224-225 of the October, 1993 issue for
rules regarding sending items in for attribution, or write to the Chairman of the
Attribution Service at the regular Dallas address before sending items.
********************************************************************
RIBBONS ON ARMS OF USSR COINS
Do you know the meaning of the ribbon bands on the shield portrayed on the obverse
of USSR coins? The ribbon bands represent the number of constituent republics
within the country.
24
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